This book presents evidence that UFOs are mainly invisible and consist of both physical craft and living, biological creatures. The author convincingly shows that our atmosphere is the home of huge, invisible living organisms that are sometimes confused with spacecraft when they became visible. Constable has photographed both types of UFOs with special infrared film, some of which are reproduced in this expanded and updated edition. Despite his bold leap into the future, the general public and official ufology have a hard time accepting the evidence. In recent years teams of engineers and technicians in both Italy and Romania, unaware of Constable's earlier discoveries, obtained virtually identical infrared photos of UFOs, which were published in Italy.
In 1996, NASA used ultraviolet-sensitive videotape to record swarms of invisible UFOs that looked like Constable's earlier photos. Examples from these photos are also contained in this book. Also covered are earlier pioneers into important life energies that play a big role in this research, including Wilhelm Reich, Rudolf Steiner, and Dr. This is an important book, recommended for those interested in the higher realms of our physical reality.
. Carbon (from: carbo 'coal') is a with symbol C and 6. It is and —making four available to form.It belongs to group 14 of periodic table. Three occur naturally, and being stable, while is a, decaying with a of about 5,730 years. Carbon is one of the. Carbon is the 15th, and the after, and.
Carbon's abundance, its unique diversity of, and its unusual ability to form at the temperatures commonly encountered on enables this element to serve as a common element of. It is the second most abundant element in the by mass (about 18.5%) after oxygen. The atoms of carbon can bond together in different ways, termed.
The best known are, and. The of carbon vary widely with the allotropic form. For example, graphite is and black while diamond is highly.
Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper (hence its name, from the Greek verb 'γράφειν' which means 'to write'), while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known. Graphite is a good while diamond has a low. Under normal conditions, diamond, and have the highest of. All carbon allotropes are solids under normal conditions, with graphite being the most form. They are chemically resistant and require high temperature to react even with oxygen. The most common of carbon in is +4, while +2 is found in and complexes.
The largest sources of inorganic carbon are, and, but significant quantities occur in organic deposits of, and. Carbon forms a vast number of, more than any other element, with almost ten million compounds described to date, and yet that number is but a fraction of the number of theoretically possible compounds under standard conditions.
For this reason, carbon has often been referred to as the 'king of the elements'. Theoretically predicted phase diagram of carbon The include, one of the softest known substances, and, the hardest naturally occurring substance. It readily with other small including other carbon atoms, and is capable of forming multiple stable bonds with suitable, multivalent atoms. Carbon is known to form almost ten million different compounds, a large majority of all. Carbon also has the highest point of all elements. At it has no melting point as its is at 10.8 ± 0.2 MPa and 4,600 ± 300 K (4,330 °C or 7,820 °F), so it sublimes at about 3,900 K.
Graphite is much more reactive than diamond at standard conditions, despite being more thermodynamically stable, as its delocalised is much more vulnerable to attack. For example, graphite can be oxidised by hot concentrated at standard conditions to, C 6(CO 2H) 6, which preserves the hexagonal units of graphite while breaking up the larger structure. Carbon sublimes in a carbon arc which has a temperature of about 5,800 K (5,530 °C; 9,980 °F). Thus, irrespective of its allotropic form, carbon remains solid at higher temperatures than the highest melting point metals such as. Although thermodynamically prone to, carbon resists oxidation more effectively than elements such as and that are weaker reducing agents at room temperature. Carbon is the sixth element, with a ground-state of 1s 22s 22p 2, of which the four outer electrons are.
Its first four ionisation energies, 1086.5, 2352.6, 4620.5 and 6222.7 kJ/mol, are much higher than those of the heavier group 14 elements. The electronegativity of carbon is 2.5, significantly higher than the heavier group 14 elements (1.8–1.9), but close to most of the nearby nonmetals as well as some of the second- and third-row.
Free download songs of hindi film chandni. Carbon's are normally taken as 77.2 pm (C–C), 66.7 pm (C=C) and 60.3 pm (C≡C), although these may vary depending on coordination number and what the carbon is bonded to. In general, covalent radius decreases with lower coordination number and higher bond order. Carbon compounds form the basis of all known life on, and the provides some of the energy produced by the and other. Although it forms an extraordinary variety of compounds, most forms of carbon are comparatively unreactive under normal conditions. At standard temperature and pressure, it resists all but the strongest oxidizers. It does not react with, or any.
![]()
At elevated temperatures, carbon reacts with to form, and will rob oxygen from metal oxides to leave the elemental metal. This is used in the iron and steel industry to iron and to control the carbon content of: Fe 3O 4 + 4 C (s) → 3 Fe (s) + 4 CO (g) with to form and with steam in the coal-gas reaction: C (s) + H 2O (g) → CO (g) + H 2(g). Carbon combines with some metals at high temperatures to form metallic carbides, such as the iron carbide in steel, and, widely used as an and for making hard tips for cutting tools.
The system of carbon allotropes spans a range of extremes: Graphite is one of the softest materials known. Synthetic is the hardest material known. Graphite is a very good, displaying.
Diamond is the ultimate. Graphite is a of electricity. Diamond is an excellent electrical, and has the highest breakdown electric field of any known material. Some forms of graphite are used for (i.e. Firebreaks and heat shields), but some are good thermal conductors.
Diamond is the best known naturally occurring Graphite is. Diamond is highly transparent. Graphite crystallizes in the. Diamond crystallizes in the. Amorphous carbon is completely. Carbon nanotubes are among the most materials known.
Main article: is a very short-lived species and, therefore, carbon is stabilized in various multi-atomic structures with different molecular configurations called. The three relatively well-known allotropes of carbon are, and. Once considered exotic, are nowadays commonly synthesized and used in research; they include, and. Several other exotic allotropes have also been discovered, such as (questionable), and (carbyne). As of 2009, appears to be the strongest material ever tested.
The process of separating it from will require some further technological development before it is economical for industrial processes. If successful, graphene could be used in the construction of a.
It could also be used to safely store hydrogen for use in a hydrogen based engine in cars. A large sample of glassy carbon. The form is an assortment of carbon atoms in a non-crystalline, irregular, glassy state, not held in a crystalline macrostructure. It is present as a powder, and is the main constituent of substances such asand. At normal pressures, carbon takes the form of, in which each atom is bonded trigonally to three others in a plane composed of fused rings, just like those in.
The resulting network is 2-dimensional, and the resulting flat sheets are stacked and loosely bonded through weak. This gives graphite its softness and its properties (the sheets slip easily past one another).
Because of the delocalization of one of the outer electrons of each atom to form a, graphite conducts, but only in the plane of each sheet. This results in a lower bulk for carbon than for most. The delocalization also accounts for the energetic stability of graphite over diamond at room temperature. Some allotropes of carbon: a); b); c); d–f) (C 60, C 540, C 70); g); h). At very high pressures, carbon forms the more compact allotrope, having nearly twice the density of graphite. Here, each atom is bonded to four others, forming a 3-dimensional network of puckered six-membered rings of atoms. Diamond has the same as and, and because of the strength of the carbon-carbon, it is the hardest naturally occurring substance measured.
Contrary to the popular belief that ', they are thermodynamically unstable under normal conditions and transform into. Due to a high activation energy barrier, the transition into graphite is so slow at normal temperature that it is unnoticeable. Under some conditions, carbon crystallizes as, a lattice with all atoms covalently bonded and properties similar to those of diamond. Are a synthetic crystalline formation with a graphite-like structure, but in place of, fullerenes are formed of pentagons (or even heptagons) of carbon atoms. The missing (or additional) atoms warp the sheets into spheres, ellipses, or cylinders.
The properties of fullerenes (split into buckyballs, buckytubes, and nanobuds) have not yet been fully analyzed and represent an intense area of research in. The names 'fullerene' and 'buckyball' are given after, popularizer of, which resemble the structure of fullerenes. The buckyballs are fairly large molecules formed completely of carbon bonded trigonally, forming (the best-known and simplest is the soccerball-shaped C 60 ). Carbon nanotubes are structurally similar to buckyballs, except that each atom is bonded trigonally in a curved sheet that forms a hollow. Nanobuds were first reported in 2007 and are hybrid bucky tube/buckyball materials (buckyballs are covalently bonded to the outer wall of a nanotube) that combine the properties of both in a single structure.
Of the other discovered allotropes, is a allotrope discovered in 1997. It consists of a low-density cluster-assembly of carbon atoms strung together in a loose three-dimensional web, in which the atoms are bonded trigonally in six- and seven-membered rings. It is among the lightest known solids, with a density of about 2 kg/m 3.
Similarly, contains a high proportion of closed, but contrary to normal graphite, the graphitic layers are not stacked like pages in a book, but have a more random arrangement. Has the chemical structure -(C:::C) n.
Carbon in this modification is linear with sp, and is a with alternating single and triple bonds. This carbyne is of considerable interest to as its is forty times that of the hardest known material – diamond. In 2015, a team at the announced the development of another allotrope they have dubbed, created by a high energy low duration laser pulse on amorphous carbon dust. Q-carbon is reported to exhibit ferromagetism, and a hardness superior to diamonds. 'Present day' (1990s) sea surface concentration (from the ) Carbon is the in the universe by mass after hydrogen, helium, and oxygen. Carbon is abundant in the, and in the of most.
Some contain microscopic diamonds that were formed when the was still a. Microscopic diamonds may also be formed by the intense pressure and high temperature at the sites of meteorite impacts. In 2014 announced a for tracking (PAHs) in the. More than 20% of the carbon in the universe may be associated with PAHs, complex compounds of carbon and hydrogen without oxygen. These compounds figure in the where they are hypothesized to have a role in and formation of.
PAHs seem to have been formed 'a couple of billion years' after the, are widespread throughout the universe, and are associated with and. It has been estimated that the solid earth as a whole contains 730 of carbon, with 2000 ppm in the core and 120 ppm in the combined mantle and crust. Since the mass of the earth is 000000000♠5.972 ×10 24 kg, this would imply 4360 million of carbon.
This is much more than the amount of carbon in the oceans or atmosphere (below). In combination with in, carbon is found in the Earth's atmosphere (approximately 810 gigatonnes of carbon) and dissolved in all water bodies (approximately 36,000 gigatonnes of carbon). Around 1,900 gigatonnes of carbon are present in the. (such as, and ) contain carbon as well. Amount to around 900 gigatonnes with perhaps 18,000 Gt of resources.
Are around 150 gigatonnes. Proven sources of natural gas are about 175 10 12 cubic metres (containing about 105 gigatonnes of carbon), but studies estimate another 900 10 12 cubic metres of 'unconventional' deposits such as, representing about 540 gigatonnes of carbon. Carbon is also found in in polar regions and under the seas. Various estimates put this carbon between 500, 2500, or 3,000 Gt. In the past, quantities of hydrocarbons were greater.
According to one source, in the period from 1751 to 2008 about 347 gigatonnes of carbon were released as carbon dioxide to the atmosphere from burning of fossil fuels. Another source puts the amount added to the atmosphere for the period since 1750 at 879 Gt, and the total going to the atmosphere, sea, and land (such as ) at almost 2,000 Gt. Carbon is a constituent (about 12% by mass) of the very large masses of rock (, and so on). Is very rich in carbon ( contains 92–98%) and is the largest commercial source of mineral carbon, accounting for 4,000 gigatonnes or 80% of. As for individual carbon allotropes, graphite is found in large quantities in the (mostly in and ), and. Natural diamonds occur in the rock, found in ancient 'necks', or 'pipes'. Most diamond deposits are in, notably in, the, and.
Diamond deposits have also been found in, the Russian, and in Northern and Western. Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the. Diamonds are found naturally, but about 30% of all industrial diamonds used in the U.S. Are now manufactured.
Carbon-14 is formed in upper layers of the troposphere and the stratosphere at altitudes of 9–15 km by a reaction that is precipitated. Are produced that collide with the nuclei of nitrogen-14, forming carbon-14 and a proton. As such, 000000000♠1.5 ×10 −10% of atmospheric carbon dioxide contains carbon-14. Carbon-rich asteroids are relatively preponderant in the outer parts of the in our. These asteroids have not yet been directly sampled by scientists. The asteroids can be used in hypothetical, which may be possible in the future, but is currently technologically impossible. Main article: of carbon are that contain six plus a number of (varying from 2 to 16).
Carbon has two stable, naturally occurring. The isotope ( 12C) forms 98.93% of the carbon on Earth, while ( 13C) forms the remaining 1.07%.
The concentration of 12C is further increased in biological materials because biochemical reactions discriminate against 13C. In 1961, the (IUPAC) adopted the isotope as the basis for. Identification of carbon in (NMR) experiments is done with the isotope 13C. ( 14C) is a naturally occurring, created in the (lower and upper ) by interaction of with. It is found in trace amounts on Earth of 1 part per (0.%) or more, mostly confined to the atmosphere and superficial deposits, particularly of and other organic materials. This isotope decays by 0.158 MeV.
Because of its relatively short of 5730 years, 14C is virtually absent in ancient rocks. The amount of 14C in the and in living organisms is almost constant, but decreases predictably in their bodies after death. This principle is used in, invented in 1949, which has been used extensively to determine the age of carbonaceous materials with ages up to about 40,000 years. There are 15 known isotopes of carbon and the shortest-lived of these is 8C which decays through and and has a half-life of 1.98739x10 −21 s.
The exotic 19C exhibits a, which means its is appreciably larger than would be expected if the were a of constant. Formation in stars. Main articles: and Formation of the carbon atomic nucleus requires a nearly simultaneous triple collision of ( nuclei) within the core of a or star which is known as the, as the products of further reactions of helium with hydrogen or another helium nucleus produce and respectively, both of which are highly unstable and decay almost instantly back into smaller nuclei. This happens in conditions of temperatures over 100 megakelvin and helium concentration that the rapid expansion and cooling of the early universe prohibited, and therefore no significant carbon was created during the. According to current physical cosmology theory, carbon is formed in the interiors of stars in the horizontal branch by the collision and transformation of three helium nuclei. When those stars die as supernova, the carbon is scattered into space as dust. This dust becomes component material for the formation of second or systems with accreted planets.
The is one such star system with an abundance of carbon, enabling the existence of life as we know it. The is an additional fusion mechanism that powers stars, wherein carbon operates as a. Rotational transitions of various isotopic forms of carbon monoxide (for example, 12CO, 13CO, and 18CO) are detectable in the wavelength range, and are used in the study of in. Carbon cycle. Diagram of the carbon cycle. The black numbers indicate how much carbon is stored in various reservoirs, in billions tonnes ('GtC' stands for gigatonnes of carbon; figures are circa 2004).
The purple numbers indicate how much carbon moves between reservoirs each year. The sediments, as defined in this diagram, do not include the ≈70 million GtC of carbonate rock and. Under terrestrial conditions, conversion of one element to another is very rare. Therefore, the amount of carbon on Earth is effectively constant. Thus, processes that use carbon must obtain it from somewhere and dispose of it somewhere else.
The paths of carbon in the environment form the. For example, plants draw from the atmosphere (or seawater) and build it into biomass, as in the, a process of. Some of this biomass is eaten by animals, while some carbon is exhaled by animals as carbon dioxide.
The carbon cycle is considerably more complicated than this short loop; for example, some carbon dioxide is dissolved in the oceans; if bacteria do not consume it, dead plant or animal matter may become or, which releases carbon when burned. Correlation between the carbon cycle and formation of organic compounds.
In plants, carbon dioxide formed by carbon fixation can join with water in ( green) to form organic compounds, which can be used and further converted by both plants and animals. Carbon can form very long chains of interconnecting, a property that is called. Carbon-carbon bonds are strong and stable. Through catenation, carbon forms a countless number of compounds. A tally of unique compounds shows that more contain carbon that those that do not. A similar claim can be made for hydrogen because most organic compounds also contain hydrogen.
The simplest form of an organic molecule is the —a large family of that are composed of atoms bonded to a chain of carbon atoms. Chain length, side chains and all affect the properties of organic molecules. Carbon occurs in all known life and is the basis of.
When united with, it forms various that are important to industry as, as chemical feedstock for the manufacture of and, and as. When combined with oxygen and hydrogen, carbon can form many groups of important biological compounds including, and aromatic, and. With it forms, and with the addition of sulfur also it forms, and products. With the addition of phosphorus to these other elements, it forms and, the chemical-code carriers of life, and (ATP), the most important energy-transfer molecule in all living cells.
![]()
Inorganic compounds Commonly carbon-containing compounds which are associated with minerals or which do not contain hydrogen or fluorine, are treated separately from classical; the definition is not rigid (see reference articles above). Among these are the simple oxides of carbon. The most prominent oxide is (CO 2). This was once the principal constituent of the, but is a minor component of the today.
Dissolved in, it forms ( H 2CO 3), but as most compounds with multiple single-bonded oxygens on a single carbon it is unstable. Through this intermediate, though, resonance-stabilized are produced. Some important minerals are carbonates, notably. ( CS 2) is similar.
The other common oxide is (CO). It is formed by incomplete combustion, and is a colorless, odorless gas.
The molecules each contain a triple bond and are fairly, resulting in a tendency to bind permanently to hemoglobin molecules, displacing oxygen, which has a lower binding affinity. (CN −), has a similar structure, but behaves much like a ion. For example, it can form the nitride molecule ((CN) 2), similar to diatomic halides. Other uncommon oxides are ( C 3O 2), the unstable (C 2O), (CO 3), (C 5O 5), (C 6O 6), and (C 12O 9).
With reactive, such as, carbon forms either (C 4−) or ( C 2− 2) to form alloys with high melting points. These anions are also associated with and, both very weak.
The Cosmic Pulse Of Life Pdf Printers
With an electronegativity of 2.5, carbon prefers to form. A few carbides are covalent lattices, like (SiC), which resembles.
Nevertheless, even the most polar and salt-like of carbides are not completely ionic compounds. Organometallic compounds. Main article: Organometallic compounds by definition contain at least one carbon-metal bond. A wide range of such compounds exist; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds (for example, ), η 2-alkene compounds (for example, ), and η 3-allyl compounds (for example, ); containing cyclopentadienyl ligands (for example, ); and. Many exist (for example, ); some workers consider the ligand to be purely inorganic, and not organometallic.
While carbon is understood to exclusively form four bonds, an interesting compound containing an octahedral hexacoordinated carbon atom has been reported. The cation of the compound is (Ph 3PAu) 6C 2+. This phenomenon has been attributed to the of the gold ligands.
![]()
In 2016, it was confirmed that contains a carbon atom with six bonds, rather than the usual four. History and etymology. In his youth The name carbon comes from the carbo for coal and charcoal, whence also comes the charbon, meaning charcoal. In, and, the names for carbon are Kohlenstoff, koolstof and kulstof respectively, all literally meaning -substance.
Carbon was discovered in prehistory and was known in the forms of and to the earliest. Diamonds were known probably as early as 2500 BCE in China, while carbon in the form of was made around Roman times by the same chemistry as it is today, by heating wood in a covered with to exclude air. In 1722, demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance, now known to be carbon. In 1772, showed that diamonds are a form of carbon; when he burned samples of charcoal and diamond and found that neither produced any water and that both released the same amount of per. In 1779, showed that graphite, which had been thought of as a form of, was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron, and that it gave 'aerial acid' (his name for carbon dioxide) when oxidized with nitric acid.
In 1786, the French scientists, and C. Vandermonde confirmed that graphite was mostly carbon by oxidizing it in oxygen in much the same way Lavoisier had done with diamond. Some iron again was left, which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure.
In their publication they proposed the name carbone (Latin carbonum) for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite. Antoine Lavoisier then listed carbon as an in his 1789 textbook.
A new of carbon, that was discovered in 1985 includes forms such as and. Their discoverers –, and – received the in Chemistry in 1996. The resulting renewed interest in new forms lead to the discovery of further exotic allotropes, including, and the realization that ' is not strictly.
Production Graphite. Main article: Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world, but the most important sources economically are in, and.
Graphite deposits are of origin, found in association with, and in schists, and metamorphosed and as or, sometimes of a metre or more in thickness. Deposits of graphite in, were at first of sufficient size and purity that, until the 19th century, were made simply by sawing blocks of natural graphite into strips before encasing the strips in wood. Today, smaller deposits of graphite are obtained by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite out on water. There are three types of natural graphite—amorphous, flake or crystalline flake, and vein or lump. Amorphous graphite is the lowest quality and most abundant. Contrary to science, in industry 'amorphous' refers to very small crystal size rather than complete lack of crystal structure.
Amorphous is used for lower value graphite products and is the lowest priced graphite. Large amorphous graphite deposits are found in China, Europe, Mexico and the United States. Flake graphite is less common and of higher quality than amorphous; it occurs as separate plates that crystallized in metamorphic rock. Flake graphite can be four times the price of amorphous. Good quality flakes can be processed into expandable graphite for many uses, such as.
The foremost deposits are found in Austria, Brazil, Canada, China, Germany and Madagascar. Vein or lump graphite is the rarest, most valuable, and highest quality type of natural graphite. It occurs in veins along intrusive contacts in solid lumps, and it is only commercially mined in Sri Lanka. According to the, world production of natural graphite was 1.1 million tonnes in 2010, to which China contributed 800,000 t, India 130,000 t, Brazil 76,000 t, North Korea 30,000 t and Canada 25,000 t. No natural graphite was reported mined in the United States, but 118,000 t of synthetic graphite with an estimated value of $998 million was produced in 2009.
Diamond output in 2005 The diamond supply chain is controlled by a limited number of powerful businesses, and is also highly concentrated in a small number of locations around the world (see figure). Only a very small fraction of the diamond ore consists of actual diamonds. The ore is crushed, during which care has to be taken in order to prevent larger diamonds from being destroyed in this process and subsequently the particles are sorted by density. Today, diamonds are located in the diamond-rich density fraction with the help of, after which the final sorting steps are done by hand. Before the use of became commonplace, the separation was done with grease belts; diamonds have a stronger tendency to stick to grease than the other minerals in the ore.
Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in. India led the world in diamond production from the time of their discovery in approximately the 9th century BC to the mid-18th century AD, but the commercial potential of these sources had been exhausted by the late 18th century and at that time India was eclipsed by Brazil where the first non-Indian diamonds were found in 1725. Diamond production of primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) only started in the 1870s after the discovery of the Diamond fields in South Africa. Production has increased over time and now an accumulated total of 4.5 billion carats have been mined since that date. About 20% of that amount has been mined in the last 5 years alone, and during the last ten years 9 new mines have started production while 4 more are waiting to be opened soon.
Most of these mines are located in Canada, Zimbabwe, Angola, and one in Russia. In the United States, diamonds have been found in, and.
In 2004, a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of in a remote part of. Today, most commercially viable diamond deposits are in, and the. In 2005, Russia produced almost one-fifth of the global diamond output, reports the. Australia has the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of 42 metric tons (41 long tons; 46 short tons) per year in the 1990s. There are also commercial deposits being actively mined in the of, (mostly in; for example, and ), Brazil, and in Northern and Western. Carbon is essential to all known living systems, and without it life as we know it could not exist (see ). The major economic use of carbon other than food and wood is in the form of hydrocarbons, most notably the gas and (petroleum).
Is in by the to produce, and other products. Is a natural, carbon-containing polymer produced by plants in the form of, and. Is used primarily for maintaining structure in plants. Commercially valuable carbon polymers of animal origin include, and. Are made from synthetic carbon polymers, often with oxygen and nitrogen atoms included at regular intervals in the main polymer chain.
The raw materials for many of these synthetic substances come from crude oil. The uses of carbon and its compounds are extremely varied. It can form with, of which the most common is. Is combined with to form the 'lead' used in used for and. It is also used as a and a, as a molding material in manufacture, in for dry and in and, in for and as a in. Is used as a drawing material in, barbecue, and in many other applications.
Wood, coal and oil are used as for production of energy and. Gem quality is used in jewelry, and are used in drilling, cutting and polishing tools for machining metals and stone.
Plastics are made from fossil hydrocarbons, and, made by of synthetic is used to reinforce plastics to form advanced, lightweight. Is made by pyrolysis of extruded and stretched filaments of (PAN) and other organic substances. The crystallographic structure and mechanical properties of the fiber depend on the type of starting material, and on the subsequent processing. Carbon fibers made from PAN have structure resembling narrow filaments of graphite, but thermal processing may re-order the structure into a continuous rolled sheet. The result is fibers with higher than steel.
Is used as the black in, artist's oil paint and water colours, automotive finishes, and. Is also used as a in products such as tyres and in compounds.
Is used as an and in material in applications as diverse as, and, and in medicine to toxins, poisons, or gases from the. Carbon is used in at high temperatures. Is used to reduce iron ore into iron (smelting). Of steel is achieved by heating finished steel components in carbon powder. Of, and, are among the hardest known materials, and are used as in cutting and grinding tools. Carbon compounds make up most of the materials used in clothing, such as natural and synthetic and, and almost all of the interior surfaces in the other than glass, stone and metal.
Diamonds The industry falls into two categories: one dealing with gem-grade diamonds and the other, with industrial-grade diamonds. While a large trade in both types of diamonds exists, the two markets act in dramatically different ways. Unlike such as or, gem diamonds do not trade as a: there is a substantial mark-up in the sale of diamonds, and there is not a very active market for resale of diamonds. Industrial diamonds are valued mostly for their hardness and heat conductivity, with the gemological qualities of clarity and color being mostly irrelevant. About 80% of mined diamonds (equal to about 100 million carats or 20 tonnes annually) are unsuitable for use as gemstones are relegated for industrial use (known as )., invented in the 1950s, found almost immediate industrial applications; 3 billion carats (600 ) of synthetic diamond is produced annually. The dominant industrial use of diamond is in cutting, drilling, grinding, and polishing.
Most of these applications do not require large diamonds; in fact, most diamonds of gem-quality except for their small size can be used industrially. Diamonds are embedded in drill tips or saw blades, or ground into a powder for use in grinding and polishing applications. Specialized applications include use in laboratories as containment for (see ), high-performance, and limited use in specialized. With the continuing advances in the production of synthetic diamonds, new applications are becoming feasible. Garnering much excitement is the possible use of diamond as a suitable for, and because of its exceptional heat conductance property, as a in.
Worker at plant in (photo by, 1942) Pure carbon has extremely low to humans and can be handled and even ingested safely in the form of graphite or charcoal. It is resistant to dissolution or chemical attack, even in the acidic contents of the digestive tract. Consequently, once it enters into the body's tissues it is likely to remain there indefinitely. Was probably one of the first pigments to be used for, and was found to have carbon tattoos that survived during his life and for 5200 years after his death.
Inhalation of coal dust or soot (carbon black) in large quantities can be dangerous, irritating lung tissues and causing the congestive disease,. Diamond dust used as an abrasive can be harmful if ingested or inhaled. Microparticles of carbon are produced in diesel engine exhaust fumes, and may accumulate in the lungs. In these examples, the harm may result from contaminants (e.g., organic chemicals, heavy metals) rather than from the carbon itself. Carbon generally has low toxicity to; but carbon nanoparticles are deadly to. Carbon may burn vigorously and brightly in the presence of air at high temperatures. Large accumulations of coal, which have remained inert for hundreds of millions of years in the absence of oxygen, may when exposed to air in coal mine waste tips, ship cargo holds and coal bunkers, and storage dumps.
In where graphite is used as a, accumulation of followed by a sudden, spontaneous release may occur. To at least 250 °C can release the energy safely, although in the the procedure went wrong, causing other reactor materials to combust. The great variety of carbon compounds include such lethal poisons as, the from seeds of the, (CN −), and; and such essentials to life as and.
Bonding to carbon.
Comments are closed.
|
AuthorWrite something about yourself. No need to be fancy, just an overview. ArchivesCategories |